'Cause there is always something there to remind me
Always something there to remind me
Always something there to remind me
Always something there to remind me
Always something there to remind me
'Cause there is always something there to remind me”
Always Something There to Remind Me by Burt Bacharach and Hal David.
(Click here for the song)
I have put two versions in the playlist: Dianne Warwick and Naked Eyes
Photo by dianne clifford on Unsplash
What is Prospective Memory?
Prospective memory is about more than just remembering to do something in the future; it involves the cognitive processes of planning, attention, and task management.
“The defining characteristics that distinguish prospective memory from other forms of memory are:
(1) the individual must form an intention to perform an action at some later time,
(2) the interval until execution is usually filled with unrelated tasks, and
(3) no agent overtly prompts the individual to retrieve the intention to act from memory at the appropriate time—he or she must somehow “remember to remember.””
Jon Holbrook & Key Dismukes 2009
Why do highly skilled professionals forget to perform a simple task they have executed without difficulty thousands of times previously?
Often, such oversights are regarded as evidence of carelessness or lack of skill, but a rapidly growing field of research on what is called prospective memory has begun to reveal that such failures are predominantly the result of the way task characteristics interact with normal cognitive processes. Everyday life and workplace situations can significantly impact a person's ability to successfully remember to complete delayed tasks. In addition, researchers found that time-based memory performance worsens with longer delays. Researchers have found that the following conditions may lead to prospective forgetting:
1. Interruptions.
Interruptions demand attention so abruptly that the individual fails to form a clear intention to return to the interrupted task, although an implicit intention remains. After the interruption ends, new tasks immediately capture attention, preventing the individual from pausing to review the status of previous tasks. Additionally, there may be no cues available to remind the individual of unfinished tasks.
2. No cues that typically trigger the completion of Habitual tasks.
A lot of the work undertaken by pilots, mechanics, surgeons, and other skilled professionals involves executing the sequential steps of highly practised procedures. Cues are embedded in the sequencing of tasks. When the normal sequence is interrupted, cues (ie the preceding tasks) are therefore missing, increasing the likelihood of omitting crucial steps.
3. Doing something out of the ordinary:
Regular readers would know that highly practised procedures involve a largely automatic execution, which frees up the effortful processes of attention and working memory for other tasks. However, researchers found that when there is the need to do something out of the ordinary if the individual doesn’t pay close attention, their mind tends to automatically switch back to their usual routine.
4. Multi-tasking:
Professionals often must juggle several tasks concurrently; sometimes it is essential to switch between tasks. However, if problems arise in one of the tasks, workers are vulnerable to cognitive tunnelling, whereby they forget to switch attention.
Tips to improve prospective memory:
Researchers found that people who decide exactly when, where, and how they'll perform a task are more likely to remember it than those who don't. The execution of future work is improved when people mentally link those situations with the intended action through visualisation and verbal repetition.
Performance is better when cues are noticeable, unique, and closely related to the task. The more explicit the reminder, and the more attention paid to the cues, the more effective it will be. Researchers found that people are more likely to remember tasks they consider important, possibly because they plan better and create reminder cues. Providing subtle hints about upcoming tasks can improve completion rates.
To avoid forgetting, individuals should make detailed plans, including specific cues that will trigger memory, and link these cues to the task through repetition. Recognising the risk of forgetting even simple tasks makes it more likely that people will use more detailed reminders.
Practical tips
Free up your brain clutter, by being organised, making a list and arranging your tasks in order of priority. Evaluate each task using a triage approach, determining whether it's urgent and important or not urgent but still important (Click here for my guide). It's also crucial to think carefully about what tasks you can delegate and take action on that whenever possible. Lastly, set aside dedicated time for different types of work to ensure everything gets the attention it needs.
Don't delay important tasks.
Make clear plans and prepare for how you'll carry them out.
Set reminders in places where you'll notice them when you need to act.
Use unique or related cues to trigger your memory for future tasks.
If interrupted, take a moment to mentally note your intention to resume the task.
Avoid doing multiple tasks at once, especially if one is important.
Connect tasks to habits you already have.
When doing habitual tasks in a different order, focus and add extra reminders.
Use memory aids like notes, calendars, and organizers, and stick to a routine.
Use checklists for critical tasks.
For teamwork, establish formal procedures for monitoring and cross-checking.
Are some people naturally more inclined to remember?
Life and work are filled with plans and intentions that are generated by others, that tend not to be in conscious awareness during the retention interval, and that need to be executed only once. Interestingly, researchers have posited that “people tend to interpret prospective memory task failures as character flaws rather than as cognitive system failures”.
Researchers have found, as expected, that more conscientious people would be more careful about making plans that lead to successful outcomes. Thus, conscientiousness is linked to prospective memory task performance. In contrast, the trait of perfectionism tends to impair prospective memory performance because the trait is often associated with depression, anxiety and procrastination. The personality trait of openness refers to the tendency to participate in various activities, appreciate beauty and arts, and prefer novelty to routine. It is also associated with a tendency to engage in various cognitively stimulating activities, which may, in turn, benefit memory over time. Researchers have found that this trait has a positive relationship with prospective episodic memory.
Extraversion was also found to be positively related to episodic memory performance in young and old groups. It has been hypothesized that this relationship is because extraversion is linked to memory-boosting factors such as frequent social interactions, improved sleep quality, a more active lifestyle, and lower reactivity to stress. Although further research is required, it has been suggested that personality traits may have a stronger impact in situations where future performance relies heavily on the individual generating memory cues and processing information.
A word of caution: Regular readers would know that personality traits refer to natural tendencies, not fixed behaviour. The role of my blogs is to raise self-awareness, provoke thought and appropriate behaviour change.
Finally, thank you to Dr Richard MacKinnon for his interview with Professor Antonina Pereira on her research into prospective memory for inspiring this blog. (Click here for the podcast)
References:
Cuttler, C. and Graf, P. (2007). Personality predicts prospective memory task performance: An adult lifespan study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48(3), pp.215–231. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00570.x.
Kang, W. (2023). Associations between Big Five personality traits and episodic memory performance in young, middle-aged, and older people: Evidence from the immediate and delayed word recall tasks. Personality and Individual Differences, 202, p.111967. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111967.
Smith, R.E., Persyn, D. and Butler, P. (2011). Prospective Memory, Personality, and Working Memory: A Formal Modeling Approach. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, [online] 219(2), pp.108–116. doi:https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000055.
Dismukes, R.K. (2012). Prospective Memory in Workplace and Everyday Situations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(4), pp.215–220. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412447621.
Gollwitzer, P.M., 1999. Implementation intentions: strong effects of simple plans. American psychologist, 54(7), p.493. Holbrook, J. and Dismukes, K. (2009). Prospective Memory in Everyday Tasks. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(10), pp.590–594. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/154193120905301002.
Uttl, B., White, C.A., Wong Gonzalez, D., McDouall, J. and Leonard, C.A. (2013). Prospective Memory, Personality, and Individual Differences. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00130.
Nuño, C. O., Christopher, E. A., & Shelton, J. T. (2024). The impact of subtle contextual information on remembering to complete academic goals. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218241270264 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001691819304305
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